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**The Knowled﻿ge Gap Theory **
==== **//By: Mallary Molatore, Angel Nguyen, Lauren Oatis, Julie Parra, Carissa Perault and Marisol Rios //** ====

//The Foundation and Development //
==== Proposed in the 1970's by Tichenor, Donohue and Olien at the University of Minnesota, the Knowledge Gap Theory believes that information within our society is //**not evenly allocated**// to every member. It states that people with a higher socioeconomic status (SES) have a better ability to //**acquire**// information, leaving two groups: one with individuals with a higher education who are more knowledgeable, and one with individuals who have a lower education who are less knowledgeable. Particularly, the theory believes that people of a lower socioeconomic status have little or no knowledge about public affairs issues, are disconnected from the news events and important new discoveries, and usually //**aren't concerned**// about their lack of knowledge. ====

**//Source: Tichenor, Donohue and Olien (1970) //**
==== The above conceptual model illustrates how the proposers of the theory demonstrated the knowledge gap between individuals. Their study asked respondents of either college, high school, or grade school education to answer the question of whether astronauts would ever reach the moon. As shown, it is clear to see the gaps between the different education levels //**widened**// as time passed. ====

==== The Knowledge Gap Theory seeks to explain the //**discrepancies**// of human knowledge which occurs across our culture. It also desires to explain the apparent failure of mass publicity to inform the public at large since the individuals reached by campaigns tend to be the better educated, younger and mostly men, while less educated and older people are //**ignored**// by campaigns. The five reasons Tichenor, Donohue and Olien justify the theory are: ====

//The Fundamentals //
====Knowledge IS power, so obtaining more knowledge provides an individual with a wide array of //**opportunities within society**//. When individuals with greater education and SES are in a greater position to //**intake**// even more knowledge, the gap //**widens**// between individuals with lower education and SES, and individuals with higher education and SES. As seen in the following hierarchy, where the knowledge gap exists between "Information" and "Knowledge". It is between those two levels that our society is //**split**//, making up the foundation for the Knowledge Gap Theory. ====

// **CRITICISM** //of the Knowledge Gap Theory:

 * ==== The psychological level of analysis should also be analyzed: motivation, relevance, cognitive schemata, threat and interest ====
 * ==== Gender and race are not taken into consideration ====
 * ==== PA and news science are less valuable and appealing to the general public ====
 * ==== Income and occupation may also be relevant differentiators ====

**Case Study Summaries: **
==== ====

// By Angel Nguyen //
==== In previous studies, message arousal, or the level of intensity of the message, has been identified as a component in understanding why there is a gap in information gain between high and low education groups. Researchers Maria Elizabeth Grabe, Narine Yegiyan, and Rasha Kamhawi in this study wanted to see how medium and low level message arousal affects the acquisition of information across education levels, and seeking to recreate the findings of the knowledge gap theory. The researchers also included motivation of the viewer and time delay as variables within the study. ====

==== Knowledge gap theory claims that members of different education levels will acquire information within media at different rates. Those with higher education levels will, in theory, be able to remember and retain information at a higher rate than those with lower education levels. ====

This specific study has listed several hypotheses and research questions:

 * ==== **Hypothesis #1**: There will be a main effect for education such that the higher education group will acquire more information than the lower education group. ====
 * ==== **Hypothesis #2**: There will be a main effect for message arousal such that medium levels of message arousal will be associated with higher recognition memory and free recall scores than messages with lower levels of arousal. ====
 * ==== **Hypothesis #3**: Memory for moderately arousing messages will decrease less over time than memory for lower arousing messages ====
 * ==== **Research Question #1**: Will the information gain gap between higher and lower education groups be smaller for messages with moderate levels of arousal compared to messages with lower levels of arousal? ====
 * ==== **Research Question #2**: If there are effects, do motivational factors account for them? ====
 * ==== **Research Question #3**: Over time, will recognition memory and free recall scores vary across the two education groups at each level of arousing content? ====
 * ==== **Research Question #4**: Do covariates account for potential three-way interactions between education, message arousal, and time delay? ====

==== To conduct the study, 41 participants were chosen based on education level. High-level education participants had either completed or were enrolled in graduate level programs. All low-level education participants had completed no more than high school. 12 news stories were then selected from all forms media – television, print, and web. The stories were chosen on the level of arousal, specifically medium and low. Participants were asked to watch or read all of the news stories in an experimental “living room”, staged to recreate the feeling of being “at home”. Shortly after their exposure to the stories, the participants were asked to answer two multiple-choice questions per story. 48 hours later, the participants were contacted and asked to recall as many stories as possible. ====

==== Based on the data was collected, the researchers could conclude that arousing content, education, and time were all factors driving the effect on recognition memory. As predicted in the first hypothesis, the study found that those with more education scored higher in both tests than those with less education, demonstrating a knowledge gap. The data also clearly showed that higher intensity messages were easier recalled than those of low intensity. The only hypothesis that was not supported was that memory for medium arousal messages decrease less than for low arousal messages. The correlation between memory, time, and arousal was not significant enough to support the hypothesis. ====

==== Results also showed that with lower arousal messages, the knowledge gap was significantly larger between the education levels than for higher arousal messages. However, the data also showed that the higher the intensity of the message, the smaller the information gap. Information collected on participant motivational factors, such as personal preference and relevance did not explain as to why a knowledge gap existed. Over time, the gap for information retention expanded as well between the two groups. ====

==== Everyone is familiar with the phrase “knowledge is power”. The findings show that a knowledge gap does exist between socio-economic levels within our society. Those who have higher socio-economic standing are more likely to have higher education. As this study finds, those with higher education can acquire more information and retain it over a period of time, especially with information of “low arousal”, which is often perceived as “boring”. Most low-arousal messages within the news media could include a legislative bill getting passed or the president’s new health-care initiative, information that is considered important. On the other hand, the study shows that the low-education group has a strong preference for high arousing stimuli—news about how a mother drowned her child, assaults and robberies, or a stalker on the loose. Although this information is interesting, and sometimes good to know, it may not be as relevant to the viewer as a bill that will directly affect all of society. Because knowledge seems to be the basis for social stratification, those with less education are at a disadvantage within the socio-economic perspective. The only way to eliminate, or at least decrease, the knowledge gap that exists is to provide better education to all levels of society. ====

//Reference//:
==== Grabe, M., Yegiyan, N., & Kamhawi, R. (2008). Experimental Evidence of the Knowledge Gap: Message Arousal, Motivation, and Time Delay. Human Communication Research, 34(4), 550-571. doi: 10.1111/j. 1468-2958.2008.0032.x. ==== ==== PDF: http://content.ebscohost.com.libproxy.sdsu.edu/pdf9/pdf/2008/HUC/01Oct08/34741036.pdf?T=P&P=AN&K=34741036&S=R&D=ufh EbscoContent=dGJyMNXb4kSeqLE4xNvgOLCmr0meqLBSsqy4SK%2BWxWXS&ContentCustomer=dGJyMPHa8Y2549%2BB7LHjgO3p8gAA ====

// By: Carissa Perault //
==== Past research on the Knowledge Gap Theory has primarily been involved with looking into //**individual-level differences**//, such as the 1999 N.Kwak study which focused on individual's attention and knowledge on certain topics. This particular article, “Newspaper Coverage of Cancer Prevention: Multilevel Evidence for Knowledge-Gap Effects”, exposes research conducted by Michael Slater, Andrew Hayes, Jason Reineke, Marilee Long and Erwin Bettinghaus. It seeks out //**regional**// differences of education and how it relates to knowledge of cancer and prevention methods. To conduct this study, they utilized past research findings as a basis to test whether a knowledge-gap also exists on the regional level, as well as its effects within the health domain—“that is, whether the strength of the relationship between socioeconomic status and health knowledge increases as the availability of relevant information in the social environment increases” (Slater et al). ====

==== The researches particularly wanted to focus in on the regional differences of overall knowledge of cancer and prevention by looking at the //**newspapers**// distributed within various regions across the United States. Then they wished to look at individuals within those regions and examine their knowledge on the topics. ====

// The following are the specific hypothesis addressed in the study: //

 * ==== **Hypothesis #1**: People who live in regions with greater concentrations of cancer prevention information in cancer news stories will possess greater knowledge about cancer prevention than people who live in regions with lesser concentrations of cancer prevention information in cancer news stories. ====
 * ==== **Hypothesis #2**: The Relationship between the proportion of cancer prevention news content in a given region and cancer prevention knowledge will increase contingent on respondent education. ====

// And the single research question addressed in the study is the following: //

 * ==== **Research Question #1**: Is the relationship between attention to health news and knowledge of cancer prevention moderated by the relative amount of cancer prevention news content, and if so, in what way? ====

==== To conduct the research, the researchers issued a random-digit-dial, probability sample telephone survey. The 2003 survey was issued to 6,369 individuals in all the major metropolitan areas across the country. Although 3.6% of the respondents either did not respond or were not asked at least one of the questions from the survey, the results showed an **//overwhelming correlation//** of education to knowledge of cancer and preventative measures. It was also noted that //**attention**// played a large role in the knowledge of these health related issues (cancer-prevention coverage specifically), as well as the finding that individuals who have a lower education view health concerns to be a less immediate priority than their daily maintenance needs. In addition to the issued survey, the researchers also combined data from content analysis of local U.S. newspaper coverage which they believe is the most //**nationally representative**// of cancer-related media use, information behavior, and cancer knowledge. ====

==== Their findings //**supported**// both of their hypotheses and provided information to answer their single research question.The study concluded that there is, in fact, a //**relationship**// between the amount of cancer prevention information distributed within a region and the amount of knowledge those residents have on the subject. They found that cancer related information was more prone to be //**available**// in regional newspapers in areas where education was higher. Not only do individuals in a higher education areas have more access to cancer related information, but it was also found that they pay more attention to the information as well as have a //**better understanding of the content**//, which gave information for the researchers' research question. Therefore, a knowledge-gap about cancer related issues was found to exist on a regional level, in addition to the findings that have shown it to exist on an individual level. Within each region, it was shown that areas with a higher education were more likely to have information related to cancer available to them in their local newspapers. In addition, individuals with a higher education are also more likely to pay attention to the material as well as fully have an understanding of the content. ====

==== To conclude the examination of the knowledge-gap of cancer and preventative measures, the authors suggest that because of the information they unearthed, society should provide information through various mediums to populations with low education. They say that this would address their //**unequal access**// to medical information as well as their lower academic training from understanding such information, and also to //**compensate**// for what they may not be paying attention to given their other life needs. ====

==== Although, this particular study's data provides an overwhelming correlation of education to overall knowledge about cancer and preventative behaviors, there are some //**potential weaknesses**// to the study. As noted above, 3.6% of the respondents were not given the full survey, or failed to provide answers to part of it. Secondly, the researches focused only on the medium of newspapers to measure //**how much**// information was being distributed to the various regions. In today's world we not only have access to regional newspapers, but also have national publications, television and internet to name a few. Although this drawback doesn't effect the information that was gathered directly from the respondents, since their knowledge is an accumulation of all mediums, it does weaken their argument about //**discrepancies**// of information given to regions that differ in financial standing. ====

//Reference//:
==== Slater, M. D., Hayes, A. F., Reineke, J. B., Long, M., & Bettinghaus, E. P. (2009). Newspaper Coverage of Cancer Prevention: Multilevel Evidence for Knowledge-Gap Effects. Journal of Communication, 59(3), 514-533. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2009.01433.x ==== ==== Newspaper Coverage of Cancer Prevention: Multilevel Evidence for Knowledge-Gap Effects ====

====   ==== ====// **Knowledge **** Gaps In the ** //**Internet Age **====

// By: Mallary Molatore //
==== The Internet has lead us to reexamine the relationship between media use and attainment of public affairs knowledge. The Internet is media’s new environment involving three types of knowledge-international affairs, about the local community, and about the Internet. ====

==== In recent years, international affairs has grown more importance in mass media by promising that the Internet overrides traditional channels, which provides opportunity for public discussion and the exchange of information and ideas. As stated by Blumler and Gurevitch this helps enhance public communication and enriches democracy with appropriate policies and institution building. The knowledge gap comes into play at the community or social system level. This includes the higher an education, the stronger information processing skills, further exposure to public affairs information through superior print media use, and a overall greater interest in public affairs topics are associated with higher education. Knowledge gaps have been found between people with access to the interest and without, showing those with lower education primarily use the Internet for entertainment. ====

==== With media use increasing, it has proven an increase to people’s public affair knowledge. In the 1990’s public affairs knowledge was coming from mainly television, newspaper, and radio. Television debates, print media for students and CNN were all involved in contributing to political learning. As of 1996 with Bill Clinton and Bob Dole’s campaign, the Internet had little influence on knowledge of the issue stances but a great deal when it came to candidate’s images. This would come to take a significant change in the next years to come. It was prominent that some people feared an intense dependence on the Internet would lead to widespread negative consequences. ====

Here are four research questions provided for the study:

 * ==== **Research Question #1**: How do the mass media and Internet individually and in combination reduce knowledge gaps? ====
 * ==== **Research Question #2**: Does the knowledge gap persist across different types of knowledge? ====
 * ==== **Research Question #3**: Does media use and Internet use reduce knowledge gaps based on education and household income differently? ====

==== “Not only do mass media but interpersonal communication also links people to their environment. The strength of communication links should predict greater awareness of that environment, and it’s possible that a stronger network of interpersonal links would reduce knowledge gaps.” So… ====
 * ==== **Research Question #4**: Will the strength of one’s interpersonal communication network links reduce the knowledge gap? ====

==== A survey was conducted in 2000, using random-digit dialing and a computer-aided telephone interviewing system. They interviewed 351 adults, all eighteen and over, and had a response rate of a little less then fifty percent. Respondents were asked questions such as, how much television did you watch yesterday, the number of hours listened to the radio, as well as question involving the newspaper, magazines, books, movies, and the theater. They were asked if they had Internet access at home, if they had ever been on the Internet, and their frequency of Internet use at work versus home. Plus other variations of questions dealing with time spent on the Internet and time spent on other media activities. ====

==== From this information three knowledge scales were made, local community, public affairs, and internet/technology. Variable were broken down into different demographics including household incomes and education levels. Internet knowledge was tapped using six items all dealing with Internet terms such as HTML, and what “www” and “.com” referred to. International Knowledge Index included four items asking questions about specific continents, and the Local Knowledge Index included five items dealing with local knowledge and specific locations of common places. These three knowledge scales were summed up to include an overall knowledge scale. ====

The results found confirmed a knowledge gap for international public affairs information, community knowledge and Internet knowledge, and overall knowledge.
==== Newspaper readership showed a high linking status to knowledge, and education and income were positively correlated to this. It also stated that people who spent less time on the Internet had less knowledge on public affairs. The Internet was proved to enhance audience acquisition of public affairs. The knowledge gap that was uncovered confirmed past observations that the Internet was primarily helping to bring about an informed electorate. This showed that people who want to be more involved in public affairs were finding this information online, rather then depending on their television. The Internet is a place for people to collect knowledge and have the freedom to express themselves on many different levels. Over time, we hope that the Internet does not fall into the same category as print media in creating knowledge gaps. As numbers of people who read the newspaper continue to fall, it will be exciting to see if the Internet can fill the gap of keeping up awareness on community affairs. ====

//Reference//:
==== Jeffres, Leo W., Kimberly Neuendorf, and David. "Knowledge Gaps in the Internet Age." Rpt. in Conference Papers -- International Communication Association; 2003 Annual Meeting, San Diego, CA, P1-26, 27p, 4 Charts. Communication & Mass Media Complete. ====

For many years researchers have tried to explain the reason why the health of people at higher socioeconomic levels is generally healthier than those of lower socioeconomic levels.
==== This research study explores this observation by looking into how engagement of people on the Internet can affect the health-knowledge gap; or the range of knowledge about health obtained online by people from high socioeconomic levels as opposed to people from low socioeconomic levels. In other words, this study is trying to prove that because of different levels of Internet engagement, “media information does not equally benefit population subgroups and that his inequality may restrict the effectiveness of public health campaigns”. ====

==== Since the study is about Internet engagement and the health-knowledge gap, we should familiarize ourselves with how these two concepts are characterized. Internet Engagement was broken down into three components: (1) How people actually spend their time online (as opposed to the actual time spent), (2) “How long one has had access to computers and the Internet, the number of places where individuals use the Internet, and what kind of connection they have at home”, and (3) How comfortable the individuals are when using the internet. The Health Knowledge Gap is composed of six distinct parts which include communication skills and information-processing abilities, prior knowledge, being in touch in with people who have the same knowledge of media topics, selective exposure/attention (using media for entertainment as opposed as for information), and motivation. These characteristics were to be looked at in all the participants to see if they differed between individuals and to measure if one really did have an affect on the other. ====

This study focused on and explored these three hypotheses:

 * ==== **Hypothesis #1**: There will be interactive effects of Internet use for health information and education on general health knowledge, such that the association between Internet use and health knowledge is stronger for people with high levels of education than for people with low levels of education. ====
 * ==== **Hypothesis #2**: Individuals’ education will be positively related to the Internet-engagement scale. ====
 * ==== **Hypothesis #3**: There will be interactive effects of Internet use for health information and Internet engagement on general health knowledge, such that the association between Internet use and health knowledge is stronger for people exhibiting high levels of Internet engagement than for people exhibiting low levels of Internet engagement. ====

==== This study was conducted using a national survey gathering responses from participants that ranged in age from 40 to 70 years old. Respondents were gathered at random from previous participants to studies conducted by Knowledge Networks. Respondents without Internet access were provided with free Web TV hardware and Internet access. The areas the respondents were surveyed in were general health knowledge, amount of Internet use for health information, Internet engagement, and other variables such as demographics. ====

==== Researchers found that there was a stronger correlation between Internet use and health knowledge for people with higher levels of education than for people with lower levels of education. This is telling us that people with higher levels of education were gaining more health knowledge from the Internet than those people with less education. We also found out that education is positively related to Internet engagement. Lastly we discovered that “the link between Internet use and health knowledge was found to depend on how much one engages with the Internet” and that a higher level of engagement online leads to stronger Internet use and health knowledge. ====

Based on these findings can conclude:
==== (1) Different social groups learn information from the Internet differently. In terms of the knowledge gap in mass media, we saw in the study that people with higher education seemed to benefit at a higher rate than those with less education. ==== ==== (2) From the experiment we learned that access to the Internet is not enough. Active engagement is necessary to maximize utility of the Internet. This brings up the issue of “the digital divide”. Many people still do not have access to the Internet with is making the gap get larger and larger. ==== ==== (3) There was a very considerable association between participant’s socioeconomic status and their Internet engagement. This also has to do with the issue of the “digital divide”. People can be more engaged online if they have access in their own homes as opposed to having to go elsewhere to get access. ==== ==== This research has shown us that access to the Internet alone is by no means the reason for differences in levels of Internet-based information acquisition. What the article suggests is that we need to educate those on the lower end of the continuum how to “build a close relationship with the Internet, a closeness that will ultimately help them both locate online health information and understand it”. ====

Link: []
====    ==== ==== **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 18px;">Explaining the Gap: //The// ** **<span style="color: #6543c5; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 18px;">Interaction ** **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 18px;">//of Gender and News Enjoyment in Predicting Political Knowledge// ** ====

//<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">By: Marisol Rios //
==== This study investigated emotion as a potential gap in political knowledge. Past studies have examined methodological issues, socioeconomic attributes, and media use as possible contributions, but they have not included enjoyment of media use as a factor in the relation between gender and political knowledge. ====

==== Pew Research Center for the People (2000, 2007) have found that women continually score lower than men on knowledge of basic facts pertaining to current events. According to Jillian Nash and Lindsay Hoffman, “Considering the strides women have made in the last few decades, these repeated findings continue to be both surprising and alarming. Knowledge gaps should not exist in a nation that promotes equal opportunity for all of its citizens. The first step is to determine the plausible causes of this disparity.” The article mentioned that the media should not be ignored when as a moderator in gender- political knowledge since is one of the main source for the acquisition of public knowledge. Because of this, Nash and Hoffman felt that it needed further exploration. ====

Nash and Hoffman argued that there was a need to study the relationships among gender, political knowledge, enjoyment, and media use. Therefore several hypotheses emerged to research this.

 * ==== **Hypothesis #1**: There will be a correlation between level of enjoyment of keeping up with the news and media use ====
 * ==== **Hypothesis #2**: Level of enjoyment of keeping up with the news will be a significant predictor of amount of media use. ====
 * ==== **Hypothesis #3**: There will be a correlation between level of enjoyment of keeping up with the news and political knowledge. ====
 * ==== **Hypothesis #4**: Level of enjoyment of keeping up with the news will be a significant predictor of level of political knowledge. ====
 * ==== **Hypothesis #5**: Gender will act as moderator in the relations between enjoyment of keeping up with the news and political knowledge. ====

==== This study was a secondary analysis of recent political knowledge survey data from The Pew Research Center for the People and the Press (2007). This nationwide telephone poll was conducted through random digit dialing. There were 1,502 participants from the ages of 18 to 95 years old, and 50.9% where females. ====

==== The results of the study concluded that there was a significant correlation between enjoyment of keeping up with the news and one’s media use (Hypothesis #1). This served as the initial test for other variables like enjoyment of keeping up with the news and both media use and political knowledge. Also it was concluded that enjoyment of keeping up with the news was a positive and significant predictor of amount of media use, even after controlling for gender, education, and income (Hypothesis #2). Enjoyment of keeping up with the news was also a positive and significant predictor of political knowledge (Hypothesis #4). A significant interaction was observed between enjoyment of keeping up with the news and gender in predicting political knowledge. Men appear to gain more knowledge from their enjoyment of news than women (Hypothesis #5). ====

==== This study, confirm that a knowledge gap exists between man and women when it comes to political knowledge due to enjoyment of keeping up with the news. According to Nash and Hoffman, increased in enjoyment results in higher political knowledge, but this relationship is stronger for men than women- that is, men potentially get more out of watching the news when they enjoy it than women do. ====

Nash, J, & Hoffman, L. (2009). Explaining the gap: the interaction of gender and news enjoyment in predicting political knowledge. Communication Research Report, 26. Retrieved from
==== [] ====

= = ====<span style="font-size: 1.06em; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 5px;">**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 18px;">Testing the Knowledge Gap Hypothesis in South Korea: //Traditional// ** <span style="display: inline !important; font-size: 1.066em; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 5px;">**<span style="color: #6543c5; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal;">News Media **<span style="font-size: 1.06em; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 5px;">**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 18px;">, //The// ** **<span style="color: #6543c5; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal;">Inter ****<span style="color: #6543c5; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal;">net <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 18px;">, //and// ** **<span style="color: #6543c5; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 18px;">Political Learning ** ==== //By Lauren Oatis//

====<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">**Knowledge Gap** research suggests that segments of the population with higher socioeconomic status acquire media-transmitted information at a quicker rate than lower-status segments. In “Testing the Knowledge Gap Hypothesis,” researchers examine **media’s role in informing citizens about public affairs**, both through traditional media, such as newspapers and television news, and the “online” version of traditional news, Internet. The study continues on to examine the roles of these particular media (i.e. newspaper, television, and the Internet) in producing a **gap between socioeconomic classes and political knowledge**. Interestingly, this study is unique because it gives us the opportunity to apply the hypothesis developed surrounding the knowledge gap phenomenon to another country with different political and cultural views. Specifically, the study is taken in South Korea and an overall view of media effects on political learning in Korean politics. ====

====<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;">Media use differs among socioeconomic classes. There are two distinctive explanations, based off of the knowledge gap theory, that account for these differences. The first difference compares social classes and their media use. and it examines how from different socioeconomic status levels our media use varies. The variation is attributed to **motivation** of the separate social class to use the media. Higher classes often times seek out information, such as politics, through the media to gain greater knowledge in a subject matter that is relevant to the individual and their socioeconomic status. In particular, when it comes to the economy and politics, the higher classes have higher stakes then the lower class counter-parts and therefore are more motivated to be politically informed. The media then gears its available information toward the tastes of the higher classes, which are also their targeted audience, increasing the availability of political learning for the higher classes while decreasing the topics of interest to the lower levels. This results in the increase of the gap between political knowledge and the different socioeconomic levels. In other words, because the upper socioeconomic classes use the media more often they can acquire a larger amount of political knowledge, which in turn increases the knowledge gap. The second explanation is attributed to the difference between the cognitive skills at the various socioeconomic status levels and the ability to process information. The higher classes are often highly educated having access to education that provides cognitive skills that make it easier to understand complicated information. The amount of learning from the mass media is then **moderated** by the social status of individuals. In other words, when two individuals of different socioeconomic levels are exposed to the same information in the media, the individual with the higher education level will gain knowledge more effectively, in turn the gap between classes in increased. ====

====<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">The study was conducted in South Korea with a telephone survey that used systematic sampling of randomly selected households in Ansan, South Korea. There were a total of 378 respondents who were chosen one from each household who was at least 20 years or older using the last-birthday method. The survey asked eight questions which examined respondent’s knowledge in two areas of politics. The first four measured **Issue Knowledge**, knowledge about current issues, and the second four measured **Civic Knowledge**, knowledge about political institutions and processes. ====

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">//The following are the hypotheses that were used in the study:﻿//
====<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;">__The first hypothesis is used to examine whether or not a gap in knowledge does exist between socioeconomic classes. The hypothesis relates to__ __the idea that the difference between classes is rooted in their ability to process information.__ ==== > __<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;">The next two hypotheses examine the role of mediating the media uses in producing the knowledge gap. In order for these hypotheses to be considered two conditions must be met. The first requires a significant difference between classes in their media use. The second condition requires news media use to increase political knowledge among the audience. __ > __<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;">The next three hypotheses examine whether political learning from news media is moderated by one’s education level. __
 * ====<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;">**Hypothesis #1:** People with higher education will be more knowledgeable about politics than the less educated. ====
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;">**Hypothesis #2:** Highly educated citizens will use news media (newspapers, television news, political websites) more often than less-educated citizens.
 * ====<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">**Hypothesis #3:** Heavy users of news media will be more knowledgeable about politics than light users. ====
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;">**Hypothesis #4:** The knowledge gap between high and low education groups will be larger among heavy users of a newspaper than among light users.
 * ====<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">**Hypothesis #5:** The knowledge gap between high and low education groups will be smaller among heavy viewers of television news than among light viewers. ====
 * ====<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">**Hypothesis #6:** The knowledge gap between high and low education groups will be larger among heavy users of political websites than among light users. ====

====<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">Researches found that people with higher education are more knowledgeable then less-educated citizens in both current issues in politics and political processes. Also, highly educated individuals use print media and the Internet more often then the less educated individuals but when it came to television news there was no significant difference. Newspaper reading and political learning showed a significant correlation to one another. In reading the newspaper individuals with higher education have the potential to acquire more knowledge. Furthering this idea the knowledge gap continues to widen if the reader is considered heavy. When it came to television news viewing education level showed no significant difference on how much was learned. Lastly, Internet use and education in gaining current issue knowledge had showed a relationship in that the higher educated the individual the greater amount of information could be acquired. ====

====<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">This study can conclude that newspaper reading may increase the gap in political knowledge between classes. It is important to note that the findings demonstrate that the SES gap in political knowledge can be attributed to the difference in newspaper reading between classes. Newspaper readings, based on the researchers findings, effect knowledge on public affairs dependent upon one’s social class. For television there was no real relation found to political learning. Therefore it had no effect on the knowledge gap. Lastly, the Internet use may increase the gap between political knowledge between classes but a number of outside factors are to be considered. ====

Reference:
====﻿<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;">Sei-Hill, K. (2008). TESTING THE KNOWLEDGE GAP HYPOTHESIS IN SOUTH KOREA: TRADITIONAL NEWS MEDIA, THE INTERNET, AND POLITICAL LEARNING. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 20(2), 193-210. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. ====

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">Link:
====<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;">http://web.ebscohost.com.libproxy.sdsu.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?hid=107&sid=5e03ed71-ce55-452e-96ea-2f72fbe7f0c1%40sessionmgr113&vid=2 ====

<span style="color: #6543c5; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 29px; line-height: 42px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">**Analysis of Case Studies:**
====<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;"> ==== ====**<span style="color: #6543c5; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; margin: 0px; padding: 5px 0px 0px;">Knowledge Gap Theory <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; margin: 0px; padding: 5px 0px 0px;">: //A Gap in Interest Level?// **==== ====<span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">//<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">By: Angel Nguyen // ==== ====<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">After reviewing each of the studies, I can conclude that there is overwhelming support for the existence of a “knowledge gap” between higher and lower socio-economic groups. All of the studies quoted confirmed the idea that the people that receive more within their lives will be able to better take advantage of the information fed to them by media than for those who have limited education. Higher education in turn allows those to be higher ranked in the socio-economic hierarchy. All the studies also contributed to the idea that those ranked lower will even have a harder time gaining access to the information available, which in the long term, will sustain the knowledge gap between socio-economic levels. ====

====<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">One study in particular was extremely interesting, “Explaining the Gap: The Interaction of and News Enjoyment in Predicting Political Knowledge”, which outlined the idea that a knowledge gap may exist between genders as well. If the knowledge gap outlines the gap of information retention between socio-economic groups due to the level of education, then could that mean that there is a correlation between women and lower education levels? This concept is interesting; especially since women are equally as likely to seek higher education in recent times as men (This study was conducted only 2 years ago in 2009!). ====

====<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">So maybe the knowledge gap, in the United States in particular, comes down to the level of interest one has on the subject at hand. Maybe those who seek higher education are likely to be more interested in seeking information within the media, which enables them to retain the information better than those who are uninterested. ====

====**<span style="color: #6543c5; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Knowledge Gap Theory <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">: //Raising Awareness On All Levels// **====

//<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px;">By: Mallary Molatore //
====<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">Post reviewing each of the case studies showing different ways that the knowledge gap has come into play in our world, I can presume that the knowledge gap differs among each social groups interaction. Throughout each study we see the reoccurrence of different education levels affecting the results. People who live in less educated areas do not have access to the same information as people living in higher educated areas. Most of this is due to a lot of people in these less educated areas not focusing their attention to these certain topics. The knowledge gap proves itself by showing in each article people with a higher education are more open to excess knowledge and are more open to making time to read the newspaper. These are the people that want to learn more and the people more capable of receiving the knowledge. ====

====<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">It was unfortunate to read the article, “Newspaper Coverage of Cancer Prevention: Multilevel Evidence for Knowledge-Gap Effects,” proving that people who live in areas where education is higher, have more access and pay more attention to ways preventing cancer. Yes this study was done concentrating solely on the medium of newspapers, but with cancer being such a high concern in today’s society, we need to make a point that everyone is on the same awareness level. Cancer related information needs to be made more available regardless of areas of higher or lower education, considering everyone has the equal chance of getting cancer. ====

==== As the Internet world expands, and more and more information becomes available daily, hopefully we can lessen the knowledge gap and have the same information available to everyone. The issues of people being less educated and uninterested in political knowledge and anything other then entertainment on the Internet, should be blamed on society. People at a young age need to learn that the more you read and engage in media, and topics regarding the general public and world awareness, the more you will benefit when looking for careers and in overall experience. ====

//By: Carissa Perault//
==== By reviewing all of the studies summarized above, it is clear that the Knowledge Gap Theory embodies various interactions between education, socioeconomic status, geographical regions, as well as attention. The area that I found extremely interesting was the attention individuals pay to differing topics. What is important to one person may not be to another (based upon various facets of their life including their socioeconomic status, education, gender, occupation etc). Many of the studies concluded that the attention individuals paid to various topics was a a key indicator of the amount of knowledge they had on a topic. ====

==== In the 1970s, when the Knowledge Gap Theory was introduced, it mainly focused on the //individual// and the knowledge they obtained. Education and socioeconomic status were the key indicators of why there were gaps in the knowledge that various individuals had. With the changing landscape of our society, it was necessary to make changes and alterations to the theory (discussed in the section below), but one that has stood out as fundamental in all of the studies summarized above was the //interaction// of attention to topics and the knowledge one obtained about it. ====

==== Many reasons are at play when individuals decide what topics to gain the most knowledge on, but their place geographically and socially have been seen to play the largest factors. A person in Indiana will have issues that are pressing and important to them, that may not effect someone in California. The individual in Indiana may have deep knowledge on a topic, whereas it is likely the person in California may have little or no knowledge on the topic despite differences in education and socioeconomic status. This is because in today's world, we are time poor. Geography plays a huge role in what individuals pay attention to and the media is so fragmented that some mediums may not even waste their time discussing issues that don't pertain to their audience. Social reasons are another player in what effects individual's attention to information. Someone with a $200,000/yr salary and a graduate degree will pay attention to different issues then the $8.00/hr high school graduate. Despite their geographic location, some topics will be more important to pay attention to for each of these individuals. ====

==== The Knowledge Gap Theory has various underlying factors that come in to play. Each of these factors work together to create the effects of knowledge gap in our society. Socioeconomic status, education, geography and attention are all **key** players in creating the knowledge gap, which each one influencing the others to create a dynamic effect. ====

//By: Julie Parra//
==== After reading the case summaries our group did on the Knowledge Gap Theory, one can really see impact that it has on everyone in our society. What makes it so interesting is that it is such a large issue, however the people that it is affecting negatively do not really know much or anything about the concept. What we learned is that there are knowledge gaps between people of different socioeconomic levels that affect how we learn and obtain information and that these gaps grow when people of higher socioeconomic levels obtain more information. ====

==== Today, one of the most prevalent methods of accessing wide varieties of media is the Internet. This can have a big impact on the Knowledge Gap Theory because people in lower socioeconomic levels might not have access to the Internet. There are so many new innovations and methods of gaining information coming out daily. From websites to new apps for your smart phone, the abundance of new information is enough to make even the most tech. savvy people’s head spin. People who don’t have access to the most basic of phones and computers are missing out on learning how to use this new technology. This has potential to grow the gap much larger much faster. ====

==== In the article “Knowledge Gaps in the Internet Age” it was determined that people that spent less time on the Internet had less knowledge on public affairs. This is a very profound statement about how lack of Internet can affect knowledge people have about topics that affect our daily lives. With all the implications that lack of internet can have on the widening of the Knowledge Gap, it also has the potential to lessen it if we harness its benefits and utilize the knowledge that is online to its greatest potential. With youth today growing up being technologically literate, making sure all kids have access to the Internet in schools at the very least will help a lot. There is so much to be learned online. The “Knowledge Gaps in the Internet Age” article also determined that people that wanted to learn about public affairs actually got more information by searching online than they did from television. This goes to show how much information is out there that really does affect our every day lives that a good portion of citizens do not even know is out there or how much it affects them. ====


 * Knowledge Gap Theory : //Key Points and Potential Solutions// **

//By Marisol Rios//
==== After reviewing the research on the different aspects where The Knowledge Gap Theory can take place, it is concluded that this matter needs further study and explanation. The theory proofs to be true in all of the case studies analyzed, which represents and issue for equal opportunity to information in our society. This Knowledge Gap Theory prevents people with low education and low socio-economic status of getting important information about health, decease prevention, and governmental issues that affect today’s society. ====

==== The article summaries had key information that was found to be interesting. The article “Newspaper Coverage of Cancer Prevention: Multilevel Evidence for Knowledge-Gap Effects” pointed out that information about cancer prevention and the disease was prevalent among people with higher education levels. This key point can be associated with the fact people with lower education tend to be of lower socio-economic status as well. From this, it can be inferred that people with lower income have less access to information regarding their health, which could potentially put them at risk to dangerous diseases like cancer. ====

==== Due to information discrepancies that subside in the knowledge gap theory, it is imperative to bring education to people of lower socio-economic status. They need to be motivated to take interest in public matters that affects them every day. A possible solution is to craft messages shown in the media as “high arousing” since it seems to work better to this audience. Making the information more interesting could potentially reduced the gap by making people actively seek for information. ====


 * Knowledge Gap Theory : //The Impact on Marketing Information Flow// **

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">//By: Lauren Oatis//
==== After review of these particular case studies and of external case studies an interesting topic of study within the knowledge gap theory proposes worthy of noting and further discussion. The topic is the existence of a knowledge gap within the marketing information flow. The existence of knowledge within a firm (the client’s and the agency’s) is essential and the predominant resource needed for the firm’s competitive strength that is accrued by those companies who are the most effective at integrating and applying information, that stem externally from the organization. In the article “A Model of Marketing Information Flow: What Creatives Obtain and Want to Know from Clients,” the researchers, John Sutherland, Lisa Duke, and Avery Abernethy develop a marketing information flow starting with the client and ending with the creative staff. The study follows a knowledge gap approach to compare creatives’ (art directors, copywriter, and creative directors) assessments of the value of information they receive to the actual information they are in need of. ====

==== The research study concluded with a very consistent knowledge gap between the information creatives’ need and the information that they would like to have in order to create and design efficient and effective advertisement. The research then calls to question how the current knowledge gap within the marketing information flow effects advertisements and media’s overall impact on society? Whether or not the impact on society is positive or negative it is worth observation. ====

==== The research should focus on what impact will result when the current knowledge gap between the marketing information flow is applied to the current knowledge gap between the different socioeconomic levels and their acquisition of the knowledge gathered from the information presented by media? In other words, we are interested in the gap within the knowledge of the mass media’s marketing information flow on our perception of the information presented to us with consideration to the gap within our socioeconomic society. Research should gear itself toward the study of the similarities and differences among the different socioeconomic status levels knowledge gap resulting from the impact of the current knowledge gap of the marketing information flow. ====

==== Further investigation of the failure points within the marketing information flow between clients and agencies would be recommended. Essential for an agency to operate at the optimal level of productivity it is necessary to focus efforts on the reduction of the apparent current knowledge gap within the marketing information flow. In order to accomplish this the research should apply emphasis on the causes and solutions in this knowledge gap that, in turn, will willing produce an outcome of increased impact of media’s influence on society. This result would be due to additional efficiency and effectiveness of the agency through additional acquisition of knowledge about the target audience’s demographic profile, customer product usage, client’s product performance, competitor’s product performance, marketing strategy, and the main selling point of the client. ====

==== Of course, from the perspective of the targeted audience would perceive impact of the media on society would be the opposite. The reduction of the knowledge gap will provide mass media the knowledge and additional leverage needed to further influence our society more effectively. Its advantage could possibly lead to the increase in control the media has on our society. In order to prevent these events in the future it is necessary for society to create awareness among the socioeconomic status' of the knowledge gap and focus its efforts on the reduction of it through different possible theories on closing the gap. ====

**<span style="color: #6543c5; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 29px; line-height: 42px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Knowledge Gap Theory NOW **

//<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 29px; line-height: 42px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Its Location in Today's World //


Since its development in the 1970s, the Knowledge Gap Theory has evolved and morphed to compliment the current times. The following are the three main ways in which the theory has altered to fit within today's society:
 * ** Shift from an abstract notion of social systems to a concrete, geographically grounded idea of community **
 * In the 1970's when the theory was developed, it focused primarily on the differences among the different social systems. This was still the reigning difference in society and provided individual pockets that separated individuals from one another. The variances among their knowledge were seen as a factor of their education and socioeconomic status, primarily those who had a college education, a high school education, and a lower education (as seen in the original model posted under the "overview" section). The Knowledge Gap Theory now embodies a more //concrete// notion of geographic communities. Instead of focusing in the the abstract social systems, the theory focuses more on the location of individuals for various reasons: 1) Similar people gravitate towards one another, therefore communities are composed of individuals of similar nature etc. 2) People talk, thus information flow within a community is the driving force of their knowledge base. These factors have contributed to this shift in the theory and provide a much more tangible method for looking at the existence of the knowledge gap within our society.


 * ** Knowledge gap decreases for local issues under conditions of high significance, high community conflict and homogeneity of population **
 * Because of this movement from focusing on communities rather that solely social systems, it has been noted that between communities, the knowledge gap decreases for issues of high significance, high community conflict and homogeneity of the populations. This topic has been at the forefront of the knowledge gap discussion because it diminishes the impact of education and socioeconomic status, and focuses more intently on the communities themselves. For issues of high significance, high community conflict and homogeneity of population, the Knowledge Gap Theory explains that individuals //choose// to know and learn about information on certain topics, especially focusing on information that directly //relates// to them. So it makes logical sense, then, to see that the gap of knowledge diminishes across communities for topics that are of high significance to both sets of people. This new revelation in the Knowledge Gap Theory goes against its initial standard that knowledge was based on education and socioeconomic status, with knowledge increasing for both as they went up. Instead, this introduces a new element to the theory, that all individuals have, to some degree, the ability to know information but it is their //choice// whether it is worth their time to learn it.


 * ** Shift from societal naturalism to individual voluntarism---the individual is seen as an entity constructing meanings unique to their circumstances **
 * Coming off of the other two alterations to the Knowledge Gap Theory, the shift towards individual voluntarism has been a vital and modern movement for the theory in its adjustment to today's standards in society. This addition states, that as individuals, we only choose the knowledge that we obtain. Based upon our socioeconomic status and education, we are more prone to have differing views of what is important for us to know. For example, the single mother of three with an hourly income of $8.00/hr and two jobs may find that a raise in minimum wage as highly important to her and my know the detailed facts of when it is to go into effect and how much the increase will be etc. For the stay-at-home wife of a wealthy executive and mother of two children, the raise in minimum wage may not be highly significant to her but the removal of her neighborhood park may be highly important to her and she knows every aspect of the conflict. Although both may have access to both topics, the individuals //choose// which issues they have knowledge on because of their own personal agendas**.**

The Death of Mass Media and Its **// Influence //** on the Knowledge Gap Theory media type="youtube" key="hbXY8Tn3VHg" height="390" width="480" align="center"

// Source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hbXY8Tn3VHg // ==== This short lecture clip, narrated by Chris Anderson about the death of mass media and a **transition** towards a more **fragmented** media, ties perfectly in with the changing landscape of the Knowledge Gap Theory. At one point in time, society depended on mass media to gather their information. Society was handed out similar information through the media whether you lived in rural Kansas or New York City. This then led any knowledge gap to be **dependent** not on geographic differences, but on education and socioeconomic differences. With the current shift towards a more fragmented media within the last decade, individuals are getting a much more **tailored** media. Now our Google searches are tailored to what location we are in, advertisements in all media outlets are changed based upon our region, and even radio and television stations are created specifically for certain market segments. ====

==== With this fragmented media culture, we no longer can depend on education and socioeconomic status to wholly explain gaps in knowledge across society. The theory now looks towards geographic differences and the attention individuals and the media give to certain issues to **explain** the differences. This changing platform of the Knowledge Gap Theory is critical in today's times to be able to explain and understand the knowledge **discrepancies** across our society. Through this vital change, it will allow us to better understand the knowledge gap and potentially be able to alleviate differences to create a more **equal** playing field. ====